The Cyber Normative Power of the Factual – How State Practice Shapes Cyber Norms

This study examines how state practice, specifically official public political attribution (OPPA) of cyber operations, shapes emerging cyber norms beyond diplomatic documents. By analyzing 164 OPPAs from Australia, Germany, Japan, and the U.S., the research identifies significant variation but also areas of convergence, offering an analytical framework and policy insights to guide the development of shared international understandings in cybersecurity.